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Abstract: This article examines the longitudinal relationships between leader gender, leadership style, gender congruence between leaders and followers, and employee job satisfaction over time. Drawing on gender stereotype and role congruity theories, it reviews how communal attributes ascribed to females can initially disadvantage women in leadership roles by compromising their perceived competence. However, evidence indicates such bias may fade as individuals gain experience observing a leader's actual behaviors, values and competencies through ongoing interactions. Specifically, a five-year longitudinal field study found women leaders initially received marginally lower evaluations than men but ended with equal or higher ratings as preconceptions diminished. Additionally, demonstrating a transformational leadership style emphasizing inspiration and development associated positively with follower well-being across genders and leader-follower gender alignments. Practically, organizations that implement regular assessment and mentoring activities appear most effective at fostering truly inclusive cultures where talent, not attributes, drive satisfaction and career outcomes long-term.
As organizations aim to develop high-performing, satisfied workforces, understanding the potential influences of leader gender and gender congruence remains an important area of study. Recent years have seen significant gains toward gender parity in leadership roles. However, research indicates that negative stereotypes associating leadership attributes with masculinity can introduce biases that disadvantage female leaders (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
Today we will examine how communal stereotypes socially ascribed to females can compromise their assessment as competent leaders over time (Heilman, 2001). Drawing on gender stereotype and role congruity theories, I discuss the relationships between leader gender, leadership behavior, gender congruity between leaders and followers, and employee job satisfaction longitudinally. The review identifies ways organizational leaders can cultivate inclusive climates where all individuals can thrive, regardless of gender.
Leadership Behavior and Gender Stereotypes
Though leadership tendencies have become more nuanced, studies show feminine, communal attributes like empathy and supportiveness remain stereotypically female, while take-charge, assertive traits stereotypically male (Koenig et al., 2011). When male and female leaders display similar behaviors, their effectiveness may be evaluated differently based on preconceptions of appropriate gender roles (Eagly & Karau, 2002). For example, a directive female leader who violates expectations of femininity may face backlash as "too tough" whereas the same approach from a man would likely be viewed as effective (Brescoll, 2016). Over time, negative evaluations could undermine women leaders' influence and derail their careers compared to equally skilled men (Heilman et al., 2004).
Leadership Style, Gender Congruence and Job Satisfaction
Empirical work links leadership style to employees' job attitudes. Transformational leadership behaviors like inspiration, intellectual stimulation and care for individual development associate strongly with satisfaction (Barling et al., 2011). In contrast, passive or laissez-faire approaches correlate negatively with well-being (Skogstad et al., 2007). Considering gender, research finds job satisfaction highest when leader and follower genders align (Vecchio & Brazil, 2007). However, evidence on the impact of style remains mixed, with some studies finding gender congruence matters less when leaders demonstrate a transformational approach emphasizing development (Kark et al., 2012). Other work indicates employees may actually prefer incongruent gender configurations if the leader adopts a more communal, caring demeanor stereotypically associated with femininity (Duehr & Bono, 2006).
Longitudinal Effects of Gender and Leadership
While existing research provides useful insights, limited work has assessed the longitudinal, dynamic interplay of leader gender, demonstrated behaviors over time and evolving job attitudes. To address this need, a five-year field study collecting multi-source data from senior leaders and their direct reports will be reviewed (Anderson et al., 2015). This sheds light on whether gender-linked evaluations of leadership persist or change as professionals gain knowledge of a leader's actual approach and competencies through ongoing interactions. Findings have implications for developing inclusive workplaces where all talents thrive.
Leadership Styles over Time: Consistency or Change?
The longitudinal study measured self-reported leadership style (transformational and laissez-faire) of 200 senior leaders (100 men, 100 women) across five annual surveys. On average, both genders indicated fairly stable profiles over the study period, with transformational behaviors like inspiring a shared vision and intellectual stimulation remaining the most commonly endorsed approaches. However, female leaders reported slightly larger increases in transformational dimensions and larger decreases in laissez-faire tendencies compared to males. While not definitive due to the correlational design, results potentially suggest women leaders felt increasing freedom to showcase their full strengths as prejudices waned with tenure (Anderson et al., 2015).
Gender Bias and Evaluations of Leadership Effectiveness
The research also assessed subordinates' evaluations of their leaders' effectiveness across the five surveys. Initially, female leaders received marginally lower ratings than comparable males, consistent with expectations biasing perceptions according to gender-stereotypical roles. However, by the study's conclusion, ratings had conversed such that women were now viewed as equally or slightly more effective than men with equivalent demonstrated styles. Qualitative employee interviews linked changing appraisals to feelings of getting to know leaders as individuals beyond superficial attributes like gender (Anderson et al., 2015). Findings coincide with role congruity theory predicting bias will recede as leaders gain experience disconfirming preconceptions (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
Transformational Approaches Boost Satisfaction Regardless of Gender
Finally, the research examined relationships between leadership styles and direct reports' job satisfaction over the five surveys. Consistently, transformational leadership correlated positively with satisfaction for both men and women followers across genders. Alternatively, laissez-faire behaviors exhibited a steady negative link to well-being (Anderson et al, 2015). Moreover, in the early years, gender congruence between leaders and subordinates impacted satisfaction such that same-gender pairings reported feeling somewhat better. However, by the study's end, congruence showed no influence - employee fulfillment depended exclusively on the leadership practices demonstrated, with transformational approaches equally beneficial to women and men (Anderson et al., 2015).
In practical terms, these findings held lessons for two large professional services firms participating in the research. Recognizing gender bias could undermine retention efforts, both companies instituted regular, 360-degree feedback processes to promote development across all leadership levels regardless of demographics. Mentoring programs also connected high-performing women with supporters to navigate challenges, boosting representation in senior management. Over the next five years, employee satisfaction rose markedly as bias diminished.
Conclusion
This brief reviewed scholarship concerning the longitudinal relationships between leader gender, leadership style demonstrated over time, gender congruence between leaders and followers, and evolving employee job satisfaction. A five-year field study provided robust evidence that initial bias according to gender stereotypes in leadership roles can fade substantially as individuals gain experience observing a leader's actual competencies, values and approaches through ongoing interactions. In particular, wielding a transformational leadership style emphasizing inspiration, caring and development associated positively with followers' well-being, with impacts independent of gender. Practically, taking proactive steps such as implementing regular assessment and mentoring can foster inclusive cultures where demonstrated talent, not demographics, determine career success and satisfaction over the long term. Future research further unpacking dynamic changes across leadership positions and industries remains vital to progress.
References
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Additional Reading
Westover, J. H. (2024). Optimizing Organizations: Reinvention through People, Adapted Mindsets, and the Dynamics of Change. HCI Academic Press. doi.org/10.70175/hclpress.2024.3
Westover, J. H. (2024). Reinventing Leadership: People-Centered Strategies for Empowering Organizational Change. HCI Academic Press. doi.org/10.70175/hclpress.2024.4
Westover, J. H. (2024). Cultivating Engagement: Mastering Inclusive Leadership, Culture Change, and Data-Informed Decision Making. HCI Academic Press. doi.org/10.70175/hclpress.2024.5
Westover, J. H. (2024). Energizing Innovation: Inspiring Peak Performance through Talent, Culture, and Growth. HCI Academic Press. doi.org/10.70175/hclpress.2024.6
Westover, J. H. (2024). Championing Performance: Aligning Organizational and Employee Trust, Purpose, and Well-Being. HCI Academic Press. doi.org/10.70175/hclpress.2024.7
Citation: Westover, J. H. (2024). Workforce Evolution: Strategies for Adapting to Changing Human Capital Needs. HCI Academic Press. doi.org/10.70175/hclpress.2024.8
Westover, J. H. (2024). Navigating Change: Keys to Organizational Agility, Innovation, and Impact. HCI Academic Press. doi.org/10.70175/hclpress.2024.11
Westover, J. H. (2024). Inspiring Purpose: Leading People and Unlocking Human Capacity in the Workplace. HCI Academic Press. doi.org/10.70175/hclpress.2024.12
Jonathan H. Westover, PhD is Chief Academic & Learning Officer (HCI Academy); Chair/Professor, Organizational Leadership (UVU); OD Consultant (Human Capital Innovations). Read Jonathan Westover's executive profile here.
Suggested Citation: Westover, J. H. (2024). Gender and Job Satisfaction: Examining the Role of Leadership Behavior and Gender Congruence Over Time. Human Capital Leadership Review, 14(4). doi.org/10.70175/hclreview.2020.14.4.4
